VOLCANO IS BOTH A CURSE AND A BOON.

VOLCANO is a fissure or vent or an opening formed in the earth’s

crust through which hot and molten material or magma in the form of lava, steam and gases come out from the interior of the earth to the surface with a great force. 

This activity of the earth occurs as an explosion through the vent which becomes larger in size and is called the crater. the development of magma and gases in theinterior of the earth and their tendency to create pressure vertically upward cause a volcano. The materials coming out in violent explosion spread around the crater and solidify and take the shape of a  volcanic mountain.

 In a volcanic eruption gases like carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen and carbon monoxide and metallic

materials & minerals comes out to the surface. The molten rock , i.e., lava may be associated with the fluidity or viscosity. The fluid lava spreads out on the ground up to a maximum speed of 100km per hour.

Viscous lava spreads slowly but it is as hot as between 1000 degree

centigrade and 1200 degree centigrade

 Volcanoes may be of three types- Active, Dormant and Extinct. An

active volcano is one which constantly ejects lava, gases, ashes and

other materials. Etna and Stromboli of the Mediterranean Sea are

significant examples of active volcanoes.

Etna (in Italy) has been active for the last 2,500 years. There are such about 500 active volcanoes in the world. Dormant volcano is one which does become inactive after an eruption for some time but may erupt violently at any time in future. Extinct volcano is one which does not indicate for future eruption and the crater of such volcano is filled up with water and forms lake in the crater.

Volcanoes are highly destructive on one hand and on the other; they

are highly useful to human activities. Volcanoes may destroy standing crops and force people to vacate large area of human habitation. However, they prove to be useful as volcanic eruption form objects of scenic beauty in water springs of mineral water and geysers. Plateaus on the earth are formed from the deposition of volcanic materials.

Volcanic Mountain is sauce of minerals and volcanic rocks. When

weathered and decomposed they become very fertile for vegetation.

Dust and ashes deposited in a volcanic activity are used as highly fertile soils. Hence, volcanoes are both curse and the boon.

RANDHIR KUMAR

CLASS - XII SCIENCE

ROLL NO. - 27

SESSION - 2011-12

YOUR TIME STARTS NOW

English is the number one language of the world. It is spoken worldwide I mean in 192 countries.  As far as my knowledge is concerned I am too week in English language. My spoken English and writing both are not up to the mark. I do not want to blame the weakness of my English is only because of my primary education from 1^st to 10^th standard.          

   

     My mother tongue is Maithili/Hindi and I did not get English knowledge till 10^th standard. When we get to know the importance of English in life became too late to be master in English language. After realizing the importance I took oath and pulled my socks up to conquer the world, and promise myself that I will learn and speak English by hook or by crook. After that I studied English in my higher studies and now I can even comfortably talk to some people in English only. I am well aware that my English is poor, that’s why I never try to write something big in English.

        Well, when I came to professional life then I came to know the other importance of knowing English. Now a day’s which is an era of scientific and an economic development, English is playing major role is this world it’s going to be a backbone of all the language which is accepted by remote to urban area of the world.

       Even Patna (Bihar) it is everesting with the latest trend and has put their impact by using correct and combination of latest vocabulary  to rest of the India.

                             Here are a few tips for those candidates who are going to learn English from some one:

                           Don’t ever go to learn English from a guy/girl who does not hold any master degree in English language. And also check out if the mother tongue of your tutor is English or not.

                           You should check the overall approach of the course material before joining the course. Be aware from the frauds which we generally face daily.

                     Check the emphasis of the course which you are going to join on Grammar and Vocabulary.

These are the basic stuff or can say backbone of the English Language, you need to become a master in these, to become a master in English Language.

No one has learnt English from his/her mother abdomen. Trust me my palls it’s dead easy to learn, write and speak English. But it is very difficult to learn if your motivation and hard studies won’t come from the bottom of your inner edge.

        Moreover it’s as easy as following a log if you start it right now. Because success of publishing this blog or SOPAN is only if you start learning it and I can guarantee you that down the line of 3 month from now onwards if study seriously, you will see the major changes in your life, you will feel leave life just like KING life.

    YOUR TIME STARTS NOW!!

Best Wishes,

Santosh Jha

Passed class 10 in 1998,

Section - F

Presently  working with StemCyte Inc, USA.

विद्यार्थियों में अनुशासन का मापदंड

एक बार गुरुजी अपने शिष्यों के साथ भ्रमण करने के लिए जंगल के बीच से गुजर रहे थे| जंगल में अनेक हिंसक जानवर, जीव-जन्तु, पशु-पक्षियाँ, पादप-वनस्पति आदि निवास करते थे| रास्ते में कुछ चंचल और शरारती शिष्यों ने विभिन्न जीव जन्तु जैसे-बंदर, कुत्ते आदि के साथ अनेक कार्य करना आरंभ कर दिया| ऐसा देखकर गुरूजी चुपचाप उन शिष्यों को उसी रूप में छोड़कर अपने गुरूकुल के आश्रम में लौट आए| शाम होने तक जब शिष्य आश्रम में नहीं लौटे तब गुरुजी तथा अन्य शिष्यों ने मिलकर रात्रि भोजन किया|

कुछ समय के पश्चात जब आश्रम के साथी सदस्य सोने के लिए प्रस्थान कर रहे थे,तभी अन्य साथी शिष्य भटकते हुए आ गए| उन्होंने गुरूजी से यह पूछने का प्रयास किया कि वे उन्हें जंगल में ही छोड़कर क्यों चले आए|

गुरूजी ने बड़े ही नम्र भाव से कहा, ‘‘जब मैंने तुम लोगों को देखा कि अपने कर्तव्य एवं उद्देश्य पथ से अलग होकर अन्यत्र कार्य में जुट गए हो तो तुम्हें व्यर्थ परेशान करने की जरूरत ही नहीं| जब तुम छोटे से गुरुकुल आश्रम में रहकर इतना बड़ा फ़एसला स्वयं कर सकते हो तो तुम अपने जीवन के सभी मार्ग आज से स्वयं प्रशस्त करो| जहाँ तुम सभी शिष्य अपने ज्ञान के अहंकार में डूबकर अपने को सर्वश्रेष्ठ समझते हो, ठीक वही तुम्हारी अनुशासनहीनता , बड़ों की अवहेलना एवं अपने जीवन पथ पर बार-भार ठोकरें खाना तुम्हीरी समझतारी का विस्तृत मापदंड है|’’

ऐसा सुनकर शिष्यों ने गुरू के चरणों में अपने आप को नतमस्तक कर बेहतरीन एवं सर्वश्रेष्ठ इंसान बनकर समस्त मानव समुदाय की रक्षा करने का संकल्प लिया|

अनुशासन का अर्थ है ‘शासन में रहना’| शासन विवेक का हो,अपनी चिंतनशील बुद्धि का हो, अपनी सरकार का हो या अपने समाज का हो| मनुष्य एक सामाजिक प्राणि है| इसमें संदेह नहीं कि उसके अपने हाथ-पैर हैं, फिर भी वह अपने आप में पूरा नहीं है|जन्म से मरण तक कदम-कदम पर उसे समाज के साथ की, उसकी सहायता की आवश्यकता पड़ती है| साथ ही कुछ नियम में बँधकर चलने की भी| समाज का नियम है कि हम माता-पिता और गुरूजनों का सम्मान करें| स्वयं आनंद से जिएँ और दूसरों को भी सानंद जीने दें| किसी के धन पर लोभ भरी नज़र न डालें बल्कि उसे मिट्टी के ढेले के समान समझें| किसी को कष्ट न पहुँचाएँ, नतो सामाजिक व्यवस्था को छिन्न- भिन्न करें और न सामाजिक शांति को ही|यह समाज का नियम है| इसका तत्परता से पालन हो,यही ‘अनुशासन’ कहलाता है| इसलिए इसे ‘नियमानुवर्तिता’ भी कहते हैं|

यदि हम छात्र माता-पिता एवं गुरूजनों की आज्ञा का पालन करते हैं और सामाजिक मर्यादाओ में बंधकर चलते हैं तो कहा जाएगा कि हम अनुशासित हैं|इसके विपरीत  हम माता-पिता एवं गुरूजनों की आज्ञा का पालन नहीं करते हैं, उल्टे उनकी अवहेलना एवं प्रताड़ना करते हैं| समाज में लोगों को क्या कष्ट हो रहा है, इसकी चिंता किए बगैर बसें जलाते हैं,तार काट डालते हैं, दुकानों में लूटपाट करते हैं, किसी से बेमतलब विवाद मोल ले लेते हैं तो हम उच्श्रृंखल और अनुशासनहीन कहलाएंगे|आज आवश्यकता इस बात की है कि हम छात्र अनुशासनहीन और उच्श्रृंखल न रहकर अनुशासित हों और रचनात्मक कार्यों में अपनी रूचि बढ़ाएँ|

    शिष्टाचार अनुशासन का ही विस्तृत और व्यवहारिक रूप है| इतिहास साक्षी है कि

जब-जब हमने माता-पिता या गुरूजनों का तिरस्कार किया है, हमारे नीतिगत मूल्य एवं संस्कारों का पतन निरंतर होता आया है| इसलिए हम सिर्फ़ शब्द, वाक्यों एवं किताबों की पूर्ण जानकारी रखकर किताबी कीड़ा न बनें| हमें एसे व्यक्तित्व का विकास करना है , जिसकी पहचान समस्त विश्व में अविस्मरणीय रूप से हो सके क्योंकि यही छात्र देश के कर्णधार, रचनाकर्ता, विशिष्ट पहचान प्रदानकर्ता एवं सजग तथा सशक्त जिम्मेवार नागरिक भी बन सकते हैं|

  शिष्टाचार पारिवारिक एवं सामाजिक सुख की कुँजी है| इसके पालन से ही व्यक्ति की लोकप्रियता बढ़ती है और जीवन में सुख तथा गरिमा का समावेश होता है| प्रत्येक व्यक्ति अपने परिवार एवं समाज में स्वयं के लिए यथायोग्य सम्मान पाते रहना चाहता है|पर, यह तभी संभव है, जब हम परिवार एवं उसके बाहर समाज के अन्य सदस्यों को यथायोग्य सम्मान देते रहें| यदि हर व्यक्ति अनुशासन और शिष्टाचार के पालन को अपने जीवन का मूल मंत्र मानकर आत्ममंथन एवं चिंतन कर ले तो क्या परिवार और क्या समाज, पूरे राष्ट्र का ही नैतिक उन्नयन हो सकता है, जो सभी प्रकार के विकास एवं प्रगति का मूल आधार है| इसलिए हमें तत्परता से शिष्टाचार और अनुशासन का पालन करना चाहिए|

उज्जवल कुमार (पूर्ववर्ती छात्र)

संकाय- विज्ञान

रॉल न० -30 (A)

सत्र- 2009- 11

विद्यालय- शहीद राजेन्द्र प्रसाद सिंह राजकीय उच्च (+2) विद्यालय,

गर्दनीबाग,पटना-2.

NCERT SYLLABUS FOR PHYSICS CLASS XI

Theory
Unit I: Physical World and Measurement (Periods 10)
Physics: Scope and excitement; nature of physical laws; Physics, technology and society.
Need for measurement: Units of measurement; systems of units; SI units, fundamental and derived
units. Length, mass and time measurements; accuracy and precision of measuring instruments;
errors in measurement; significant figures.
Dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications.
Unit II: Kinematics (Periods 30)
Frame of reference. Motion in a straight line: Position-time graph, speed and velocity. Uniform
and non-uniform motion, average speed and instantaneous velocity.
Uniformly accelerated motion, velocity-time and position-time graphs, relations for uniformly
accelerated motion (graphical treatment).
Elementary concepts of differentiation and integration for describing motion.
Scalar and vector quantities: Position and displacement vectors, general vectors and notation,
equality of vectors, multiplication of vectors by a real number; addition and subtraction of
vectors. Relative velocity.
Unit vectors. Resolution of a vector in a plane – rectangular components. Motion in a plane.
Cases of uniform velocity and uniform acceleration – projectile motion. Uniform circular motion.
Unit III: Laws of Motion (Periods 16)
Intuitive concept of force. Inertia, Newton’s first law of motion; momentum and Newton’s
second law of motion; impulse; Newton’s third law of motion. Law of conservation of linear
momentum and its applications.
Equilibrium of concurrent forces. Static and kinetic friction, laws of friction, rolling friction, lubrication.
Dynamics of uniform circular motion: Centripetal force, examples of circular motion (vehicle on
level circular road, vehicle on banked road).
Unit IV: Work, Energy and Power (Periods 16)
Scalar product of vectors. Work done by a constant force and a variable force; kinetic energy,
work-energy theorem, power.
Notion of potential energy, potential energy of a spring, conservative forces; conservation
of mechanical energy (kinetic and potential energies); non-conservative forces; elastic and inelastic
collisions in one and two dimensions.
Unit V: Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Body (Periods 18)
Centre of mass of a two-particle system, momentum conservation and centre of mass motion.
Centre of mass of a rigid body; centre of mass of circular ring, disc, rod and sphere.
Vector product of vectors; moment of a force, torque, angular momentum, conservation
of angular momentum with some examples.
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
36
Equilibrium of rigid bodies, rigid body rotation and equation of rotational motion, comparison
of linear and rotational motions; moment of inertia, radius of gyration. Values of M.I. for
simple geometrical objects (no derivation). Statement of parallel and perpendicular axes theorems
and their applications.
Unit VI: Gravitation (Periods 14)
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. The universal law of gravitation.
Acceleration due to gravity and its variation with altitude and depth.
Gravitational potential energy; gravitational potential. Escape speed, orbital velocity of a
satellite. Geostationary satellites.
Unit VII: Properties of Bulk Matter (Periods 28)
Elastic behaviour, Stress-strain relationship, Hooke’s law, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, shear,
modulus of rigidity.
Pressure due to a fluid column; Pascal’s law and its applications (hydraulic lift and hydraulic
brakes). Effect of gravity on fluid pressure.
Viscosity, Stokes’ law, terminal velocity, Reynold’s number, streamline and turbulent flow.
Bernoulli’s theorem and its applications.
Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, application of surface tension ideas to
drops, bubbles and capillary rise.
Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; specific heat capacity – calorimetry; change of state –
latent heat.
Heat transfer – conduction, convection and radiation, thermal conductivity, Newton’s law of cooling.
Unit VIII: Thermodynamics (Periods 12)
Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature (zeroth law of thermodynamics). Heat, work
and internal energy. First law of thermodynamics.
Second law of thermodynamics: Reversible and irreversible processes. Heat engines and refrigerators.
Unit IX: Behaviour of Perfect Gas and Kinetic Theory (Periods 8)
Equation of state of a perfect gas, work done on compressing a gas.
Kinetic theory of gases: Assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic energy and temperature; rms
speed of gas molecules; degrees of freedom, law of equipartition of energy (statement only) and
application to specific heat capacities of gases; concept of mean free path, Avogadro’s number.
Unit X: Oscillations and Waves (Periods 28)
Periodic motion – period, frequency, displacement as a function of time. Periodic functions. Simple
harmonic motion (SHM) and its equation; phase; oscillations of a spring – restoring force and force
constant; energy in SHM – kinetic and potential energies; simple pendulum – derivation of expression
for its time period; free, forced and damped oscillations (qualitative ideas only), resonance.
Wave motion. Longitudinal and transverse waves, speed of wave motion. Displacement
relation for a progressive wave. Principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, standing
waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and harmonics. Beats. Doppler effect.
37
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
Practicals
Section A
Experiments
1. Use of Vernier Callipers
(i) to measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body.
(ii) to measure dimensions of a given regular body of known mass and hence find its density.
(iii) to measure internal diameter and depth of a given beaker/calorimeter and hence find its
volume.
2. Use of screw gauge
(i) to measure diameter of a given wire
(ii) to measure thickness of a given sheet
(iii) to measure volume of an irregular lamina
3. To determine radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by a spherometer.
4. To determine the mass of two different objects using a beam balance.
5. To find the weight of a given body using parallelogram law of vectors.
6. Using a simple pendulum, plot L-T and L-T2 graphs. Hence find the effective length of a
second’s pendulum using appropriate graph.
7. To study the relationship between force of limiting friction and normal reaction and to find
the coefficient of friction between a block and a horizontal surface.
8. To find the downward force, along an inclined plane, acting on a roller due to gravitational
pull of the earth and study its relationship with the angle of inclination by plotting graph
between force and sin θ.
Activities
1. To make a paper scale of given least count, e.g. 0.2 cm, 0.5 cm.
2. To determine mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of moments.
3. To plot a graph for a given set of data, with proper choice of scales and error bars.
4. To measure the force of limiting friction for rolling of a roller on a horizontal plane.
5. To study the variation in the range of a jet of water with the angle of projection.
6. To study the conservation of energy of a ball rolling down on inclined plane (using a double
inclined plane).
7. To study dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum by plotting a graph between square of
amplitude and time.
Section B
Experiments
1. To determine Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material
of a given wire.
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
38
XII
2. To find the force constant and effective mass of a helical spring by plotting T2-m graph using
method of oscillations.
3. To study the variation in volume with pressure for a sample of air at constant temperature by
plotting graphs between P and V, and between P and 1/V.
4. To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.
5. To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring the terminal
velocity of a given spherical body.
6. To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting a
cooling curve.
7. (i) To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire under constant
tension using sonometer.
(ii) To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant frequency
using sonometer.
8. To find the speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube by tworesonance
positions.
9. To determine specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid (ii) liquid, by method of mixtures.
Activities
1. To observe change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax.
2. To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip.
3. To note the change in level of liquid in a container on heating and interpret the observations.
4. To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by observing capillary rise.
5. To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid.
6. To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped metre scale loaded
(i) at its end (ii) in the middle.

NCERT SYLLABUS FOR PHYSICS CLASS XII

Unit I: Electrostatics (Periods 25)
Electric charges and their conservation. Coulomb’s law – force between two point charges,
forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous charge distribution.
Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines; electric dipole, electric
field due to a dipole; torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field.
Electric flux, statement of Gauss’s theorem and its applications to find field due to infinitely
long straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical
shell (field inside and outside).
Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole and
system of charges; equipotential surfaces, electrical potential energy of a system of two point
charges and of electric dipoles in an electrostatic field.
39
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor. Dielectrics
and electric polarisation, capacitors and capacitance, combination of capacitors in series and in
parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the
plates, energy stored in a capacitor, Van de Graaff generator.
Unit II: Current Electricity (Periods 22)
Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity and mobility, and
their relation with electric current; Ohm’s law, electrical resistance, V-I characteristics (linear and
non-linear), electrical energy and power, electrical resistivity and conductivity. Carbon resistors,
colour code for carbon resistors; series and parallel combinations of resistors; temperature
dependence of resistance.
Internal resistance of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in
series and in parallel.
Kirchhoff ’s laws and simple applications. Wheatstone bridge, metre bridge.
Potentiometer – principle and applications to measure potential difference, and for comparing
emf of two cells; measurement of internal resistance of a cell.
Unit III: Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism (Periods 25)
Concept of magnetic field, Oersted’s experiment.
Biot - Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop.
Ampere’s law and its applications to infinitely long straight wire, straight and toroidal solenoids.
Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields. Cyclotron.
Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. Force between two
parallel current-carrying conductors – definition of ampere. Torque experienced by a current
loop in a magnetic field; moving coil galvanometer – its current sensitivity and conversion to
ammeter and voltmeter.
Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment. Magnetic dipole moment
of a revolving electron. Magnetic field intensity due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) along its
axis and perpendicular to its axis. Torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform
magnetic field; bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid, magnetic field lines; Earth’s magnetic field
and magnetic elements. Para-, dia- and ferro - magnetic substances, with examples. Electromagnets
and factors affecting their strengths. Permanent magnets.
Unit IV: Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents (Periods 20)
Electromagnetic induction; Faraday’s law, induced emf and current; Lenz’s Law, Eddy currents.
Self and mutual inductance.
Need for displacement current.
Alternating currents, peak and rms value of alternating current /voltage; reactance and
impedance; LC oscillations (qualitative treatment only), LCR series circuit, resonance; power in
AC circuits, wattless current.
AC generator and transformer.
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
40
Unit V: Electromagnetic Waves (Periods 4)
Electromagnetic waves and their characteristics (qualitative ideas only). Transverse nature of
electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-rays,
gamma rays) including elementary facts about their uses.
Unit VI: Optics (Periods 30)
Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula. Refraction of light, total internal reflection
and its applications, optical fibres, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lensmaker’s
formula. Magnification, power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact. Refraction
and dispersion of light through a prism.
Scattering of light – blue colour of the sky and reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise
and sunset.
Optical instruments: Human eye, image formation and accommodation, correction of eye defects
(myopia, hypermetropia, presbyopia and astigmatism) using lenses. Microscopes and astronomical
telescopes (reflecting and refracting) and their magnifying powers.
Wave optics: Wavefront and Huygens’ principle, reflection and refraction of plane wave at a plane
surface using wavefronts. Proof of laws of reflection and refraction using Huygens’ principle.
Interference, Young’s double slit experiment and expression for fringe width, coherent sources
and sustained interference of light. Diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maximum.
Resolving power of microscopes and astronomical telescopes. Polarisation, plane polarised light;
Brewster’s law, uses of plane polarised light and Polaroids.
Unit VII: Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation (Periods 8)
Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard’s observations; Einstein’s photoelectric equation – particle
nature of light.
Matter waves – wave nature of particles, de Broglie relation. Davisson-Germer experiment.
Unit VIII: Atoms and Nuclei (Periods 18)
Alpha - particle scattering experiment; Rutherford’s model of atom; Bohr model, energy levels,
hydrogen spectrum.
Composition and size of nucleus, atomic masses, isotopes, isobars; isotones. Radioactivity –
alpha, beta and gamma particles/rays and their properties; radioactive decay law. Mass-energy
relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number; nuclear
fission and fusion.
Unit IX: Electronic Devices (Periods 18)
Semiconductors; semiconductor diode – I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, diode as
a rectifier; I-V characteristics of LED, photodiode, solar cell, and Zener diode; Zener diode as
41
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
a voltage regulator. Junction transistor, transistor action, characteristics of a transistor; transistor as
an amplifier (common emitter configuration) and oscillator. Logic gates (OR, AND, NOT, NAND
and NOR). Transistor as a switch.
Unit X: Communication Systems (Periods 10)
Elements of a communication system (block diagram only); bandwidth of signals (speech, TV
and digital data); bandwidth of transmission medium. Propagation of electromagnetic waves in
the atmosphere, sky and space wave propagation. Need for modulation. Production and detection
of an amplitude-modulated wave.
Practicals
Section A
Experiments
1. To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge and hence determine the specific
resistance of its material.
3. To verify the laws of combination (series/parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge.
4. To compare the emf ’s of two given primary cells using potentiometer.
5. To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.
6. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure
of merit.
7. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance of figure of merit) into an ammeter
and voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.
8. To find the frequency of the ac mains with a sonometer.
Activities
1. To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or without iron core.
2. To measure resistance, voltage (ac/dc), current (ac) and check continuity of a given circuit
using multimeter.
3. To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and
a power source.
4. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
5. To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.
6. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat,
key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order
and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
42
Section B
Experiments
1. To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the
focal length.
2. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/
u and 1/v.
3. To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
4. To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.
5. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
6. To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
7. To find refractive index of a liquid by using (i) concave mirror,(ii) convex lens and plane
mirror.
8. To draw the I-V characteristics curves of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
9. To draw the characteristics curve of a zener diode and to determine its reverse break
down voltage.
10. To study the characteristics of a common-emitter npn or pnp transistor and to find out the
values of current and voltage gains.
Activities
1. To study effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the source) on an LDR.
2. To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, and IC, a resistor and a capacitor from mixed
collection of such items.
3. Use of multimeter to (i) identify base of transistor, (ii) distinguish between npn and pnp
type transistors, (iii) see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an LED,
(iv) check whether a given electronic component (e.g. diode, transistor or IC) is in working
order.
4. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.
5. To observe polarization of light using two polaroids.
6. To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.
7. To study the nature and size of the image formed by (i) convex lens (ii) concave mirror, on a
screen by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens/mirror).
8. To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses from the
given set of lenses.
Suggested Investigatory Projects
1. To investigate whether the energy of a simple pendulum is conserved.
2. To determine the radius of gyration about the centre of mass of a metre scale used as a
bar pendulum.
43
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
3. To investigate changes in the velocity of a body under the action of a constant force and
determine its acceleration.
4. To compare effectiveness of different materials as insulators of heat.
5. To determine the wavelength of laser beam by diffraction.
6. To study various factors on which the internal resistance/emf of a cell depends.
7. To construct a time-switch and study dependence of its time constant on various factors.
8. To study infrared radiations emitted by different sources using photo-transistor.
9. To compare effectiveness of different materials as absorbers of sound.
10. To design an automatic traffic signal system using suitable combination of logic gates.
11. To study luminosity of various electric lamps of different powers and make.
12. To compare the Young’s modulus of elasticity of different specimens of rubber and also
draw their elastic hysteresis curve.
13. To study collision of two balls in two dimensions.
14. To study frequency response of (i) a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor, (ii) RL circuit,
(iii) RC circuit, (iv) LCR series circuit.SYLLABUS shall be published shortly

NCERT SYLLABUS FOR CHEMISTRY CLASS XI

Theory Total Periods 180
Unit I: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry (Periods 14)
General Introduction: Importance and scope of chemistry.
Historical approach to particulate nature of matter, laws of chemical combination, Dalton’s atomic
theory: concept of elements, atoms and molecules.
Atomic and molecular masses. Mole concept and molar mass; percentage composition and empirical
and molecular formula; chemical reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry.
Unit II: Structure of Atom (Periods 16)
Discovery of electron, proton and neutron; atomic number, isotopes and isobars. Thompson’s
model and its limitations, Rutherford’s model and its limitations, Bohr’s model and its limitations,
concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of matter and light, de Broglie’s relationship, Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, concept of orbitals, quantum numbers, shapes of s, p, and d orbitals, rules
for filling electrons in orbitals – Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle and Hund’s rule,
electronic configuration of atoms, stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals.
Unit III: Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties (Periods 8)
Significance of classification, brief history of the development of periodic table,
modern periodic law and the present form of periodic table, periodic
trends in properties of elements – atomic radii, ionic radii,
inert gas radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy,
electronegativity, valence.
Unit IV: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
(Periods 16)
Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameters,
Lewis structure, polar character of covalent bond, covalent character
of ionic bond, valence bond theory, resonance, geometry of
covalent molecules, VSEPR theory, concept of hybridization
involving s, p and d orbitals and shapes of some simple molecules,
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
24
molecular orbital theory of homonuclear diatomic molecules (qualitative idea only),
hydrogen bond.
Unit V: States of Matter: Gases and Liquids (Periods 14)
Three states of matter, intermolecular interactions, type of bonding, melting and boiling points,
role of gas laws in elucidating the concept of the molecule, Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, Gay Lussac’s
law, Avogadro’s law, ideal behaviour, empirical derivation of gas equation, Avogadro’s number,
ideal gas equation, deviation from ideal behaviour, liquefaction of gases, critical temperature.
Liquid State – Vapour pressure, viscosity and surface tension (qualitative idea only, no
mathematical derivations).
Unit VI: Thermodynamics (Periods 16)
Concepts of system, types of systems, surroundings, work, heat, energy, extensive and intensive
properties, state functions.
First law of thermodynamics – internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity and specific heat,
measurement of ΔU and ΔH, Hess’s law of constant heat summation, enthalpy of: bond dissociation,
combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, ionization, and dilution.
Introduction of entropy as a state function, free energy change for spontaneous and nonspontaneous
process, equilibrium.
Unit VII: Equilibrium (Periods 16)
Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes, dynamic nature of equilibrium, law of mass
action, equilibrium constant, factors affecting equilibrium – Le Chatelier’s principle; ionic
equilibrium – ionization of acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization,
concept of pH. Hydrolysis of salts (elementary idea), buffer solutions, solubility product, common
ion effect (with illustrative examples).
Unit VIII: Redox Reactions (Periods 6)
Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions,
oxidation number, balancing redox reactions, applications
of redox reactions.
Unit IX: Hydrogen (Periods 8)
Position of hydrogen in periodic table, occurrence, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of
hydrogen; hydrides – ionic, covalent and interstitial; physical and chemical properties of water,
heavy water; hydrogen peroxide – preparation, reactions and structure; hydrogen as a fuel.
Unit X: s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals) (Periods 14)
Group 1 and Group 2 elements:
General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, anomalous properties of the first
element of each group, diagonal relationship, trends in the variation of properties (such as ionization
enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical reactivity with oxygen, water, hydrogen and
halogens; uses.
Preparation and properties of some important compounds:
Sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate, biological
importance of sodium and potassium.
CaO, CaCO3, and industrial use of lime and limestone, biological importance of Mg and Ca.
25
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
Unit XI: Some p-Block Elements (Periods 16)
General Introduction to p-Block Elements
Group 13 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties,
oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of the group;
Boron – physical and chemical properties, some important compounds: borax, boric acids,
boron hydrides. Aluminium: uses, reactions with acids and alkalies.
Group 14 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of
properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first element.
Carbon – catenation, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties; uses of some important
compounds: oxides.
Important compounds of silicon and a few uses: silicon tetrachloride , silicones, silicates and
zeolites.
Unit XII: Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles and Techniques (Periods 14)
General introduction, methods of purification, qualitative and quantitative analysis, classification
and IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds.
Electronic displacements in a covalent bond: inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance
and hyper conjugation.
Homolytic and heterolytic fission of a covalent bond: free radicals, carbocations, carbanions;
electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of organic reactions
Unit XIII: Hydrocarbons (Periods 16)
Classification of hydrocarbons
Alkanes: Nomenclature, isomerism, conformations (ethane only), physical properties, chemical
reactions including free radical mechanism of halogenation, combustion and pyrolysis.
Alkenes: Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical isomerism, physical
properties, methods of preparation; chemical reactions: addition of hydrogen, halogen, water,
hydrogen halides (Markovnikov’s addition and peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation, mechanism
of electrophilic addition.
Alkynes: Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), physical properties, methods of
preparation, chemical reactions: acidic character of alkynes, addition reaction of – hydrogen,
halogens, hydrogen halides and water.
Aromatic hydrocarbons: Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature; Benzene: resonance, aromaticity;
chemical properties: mechanism of electrophilic substitution – nitration sulphonation, halogenation,
Friedel Craft’s alkylation and acylation; directive influence of functional group in mono-substituted
benzene; carcinogenicity and toxicity.
Unit XIV: Environmental Chemistry (Periods 6)
Environmental pollution : Air, water and soil pollution, chemical reactions in atmosphere, smogs,
major atmospheric pollutants; acid rain, ozone and its reactions, effects of depletion of ozone
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
26
layer, greenhouse effect and global warming – pollution due to industrial wastes; green chemistry
as an alternative tool for reducing pollution, strategy for control of environmental pollution.
Practicals Total Periods 60
Micro-chemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments. Wherever possible
such techniques should be used.
A. Basic Laboratory Techniques (Periods 2)
1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod
2. Bending a glass tube
3. Drawing out a glass jet
4. Boring a cork
B. Characterisation and Purification of Chemical Substance (Periods 6)
1. Determination of melting point of organic compound.
2. Determination of boiling point of organic compound.
3. Crystallization involving impure sample of any one of the following: Alum, Copper
sulphate, Benzoic acid.
C. Experiments Related to pH Change (Periods 6)
(a) Any one of the following experiments:
• Determination of pH of some solutions obtained from fruit juices, solutions of known
and varied concentrations of acids, bases and salts using pH paper or universal indicator.
• Comparing the pH of solutions of strong and weak acid of same concentration.
• Study the pH change in the titration of a strong acid with a strong base using universal
indicator.
(b) Study of pH change by common-ion effect in case of weak acids and weak bases.
D. Chemical Equilibrium (Periods 4)
One of the following experiments:
(a) Study the shift in equilibrium between ferric ions and thiocynate ions by increasing/
decreasing the concentration of either ions.
(b) Study the shift in equilibrium between [Co (H2O)6]2+ and chloride ions by changing the
concentration of either of the ions.
E. Quantitative Estimation (Periods 16)
• Using a chemical balance.
• Preparation of standard solution of oxalic acid.
• Determination of strength of a given solution of sodium hydroxide by titrating it against
standard solution of oxalic acid.
• Preparation of standard solution of sodium carbonate.
27
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
XII
• Determination of strength of a given solution of hydrochloric acid by titrating it against
standard sodium carbonate solution.
F. Qualitative Analysis (Periods 16)
Determination of one anion and one cation in a given salt
Cations – Pb2+, Cu2+, As3+, Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Co2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+,
Mg2+, NH+
4
Anions – CO2– 3, S2–, SO2– 3, SO2– 4, NO– 2, NO– 3, Cl–, Br–, I–, PO3– 4, C2O2– 4 CH3COO–
(Note : Insoluble salts excluded)
Project (Periods 10)
Scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other sources.
A few suggested projects
• Checking the bacterial contamination in drinking water by testing sulphide ions.
• Study of the methods of purification of water.
• Testing the hardness, presence of iron, fluoride, chloride etc. depending upon the regional
variation in drinking water and the study of causes of presences of these ions above
permissible limit (if any)
• Investigation of the foaming capacity of different washing soaps and the effect of addition of
sodium carbonate on them.
• Study of the acidity of different samples of the tea leaves.
• Determination of the rate of evaporation of different liquids.
• Study of the effect of acids and bases on the tensile strength of fibers.
• Analysis of fruit and vegetable juices for their acidity.
Note: Any other investigatory project, which involves about 10 periods of work, can be chosen
with the approval of the teacher.

NCERT SYLLABUS FOR CHEMISTRY CLASS XII

Theory Total Periods 60
Unit I: Solid State (Periods 12)
Classification of solids based on different binding forces: molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic
solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea), unit cell in two dimensional and three
dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing in solids, voids, number of atoms
per unit cell in a cubic unit cell, point defects, electrical and magnetic properties.
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
28
Unit II: Solutions (Periods 12)
Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of gases
in liquids, solid solutions, colligative properties – relative lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of
B.P., depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of molecular masses using
colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass.
Unit III: Electrochemistry (Periods 14)
Redox reactions; conductance in electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity variations
of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch’s Law, electrolysis and laws of electrolysis
(elementary idea), dry cell – electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells; lead accumulator, EMF of a
cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application to chemical cells, fuel
cells; corrosion.
Unit IV: Chemical Kinetics (Periods 12)
Rate of a reaction (average and instantaneous), factors affecting rates of reaction: concentration,
temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction; rate law and specific rate constant,
integrated rate equations and half life (only for zero and first order reactions); concept of collision
theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment).
Unit V: Surface Chemistry (Periods 8)
Adsorption: Physisorption and chemisorption; factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids;
catalysis: homogenous and heterogeneous, activity and selectivity: enzyme catalysis; colloidal state:
distinction between true solutions, colloids and suspensions; lyophillic, lyophobic multimolecular
and macromolecular colloids; properties of colloids; Tyndall effect, Brownian movement,
electrophoresis, coagulation; emulsions – types of emulsions.
Unit VI: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements (Periods 8)
Principles and methods of extraction: concentration, oxidation, reduction electrolytic method and
refining; occurrence and principles of extraction of aluminium, copper, zinc and iron.
Unit VII: p-Block Elements (Periods 14)
Group 15 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, oxidation states,
trends in physical and chemical properties; nitrogen – preparation, properties and uses; compounds
of nitrogen: preparation and properties of ammonia and nitric acid, oxides of nitrogen (structure
only); Phosphorous – allotropic forms; compounds of phosphorous: preparation and properties
of phosphine, halides (PCl3, PCl5) and oxoacids (elementary idea only).
Group 16 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence,
trends in physical and chemical properties; dioxygen: preparation, properties and uses; simple
oxides; ozone. Sulphur – allotropic forms; compounds of sulphur: preparation, properties and
uses of sulphur dioxide; sulphuric acid: industrial process of manufacture, properties and uses,
oxoacids of sulphur (structures only).
29
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
Group 17 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence,
trends in physical and chemical properties; compounds of halogens: preparation, properties
and uses of chlorine and hydrochloric acid, interhalogen compounds, oxoacids of halogens
(structures only).
Group 18 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, trends in physical
and chemical properties, uses.
Unit VIII: d and f Block Elements (Period 14)
General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition metals,
general trends in properties of the first row transition metals – metallic character, ionization
enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial
compounds, alloy formation. Preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.
Lanthanoids: electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid
contraction.
Actinoids: Electronic configuration, oxidation states.
Unit IX: Coordination Compounds (Period 12)
Coordination compounds: Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties
and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, bonding;
isomerism, importance of coordination compounds (in qualitative analysis, extraction of
metals and biological systems).
Unit X: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes (Periods 12)
Haloalkanes: Nomenclature, nature of C-X bond, physical and chemical properties, mechanism
of substitution reactions.
Haloarenes: Nature of C-X bond, substitution reactions (directive influence of halogen for
monosubstituted compounds only).
Uses and environmental effects of – dichloromethane, trichloromethane, tetrochloromethane,
iodoform, freons, DDT.
Unit XI: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers (Periods 12)
Alcohols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary
alcohols only); identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols;
mechanism of dehydration, uses, some important compounds –
methanol and ethanol.
Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and
chemical properties, acidic nature of phenol, electrophillic
substitution reactions, uses of phenols.
Ethers: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical
and chemical properties, uses.
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
30
Unit XII: Aldehydes, Ketones
and Carboxylic Acids (Periods 12)
Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature,
nature of carbonyl group, methods
of preparation, physical and chemical properties,
and mechanism of nucleophilic addition,
reactivity of alpha hydrogen in aldehydes; uses.
Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation,
physical and chemical properties; uses.
Unit XIII: Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen (Periods 10)
Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties, uses, identification of primary secondary and tertiary amines.
Cyanides and Isocyanides will be mentioned at relevant places in context.
Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.
Unit XIV: Biomolecules (Periods 12)
Carbohydrates: Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccharides (glucose and fructose),
oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen);
importance.
Proteins: Elementary idea of α - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, primary
structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure (qualitative idea only),
denaturation of proteins; enzymes.
Vitamins: Classification and functions.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA .
Unit XV: Polymers (Periods 8)
Classification: Natural and synthetic, methods of polymerization (addition and condensation),
copolymerization. Some important polymers: natural and synthetic like polythene, nylon, polyesters,
bakelite, rubber.
Unit XVI: Chemistry in Everyday Life (Periods 8)
1. Chemicals in medicines – analgesics, tranquilizers, antiseptics, disinfectants, antimicrobials,
antifertility drugs, antibiotics, antacids, antihistamines.
2. Chemicals in food – preservatives, artificial sweetening agents.
3. Cleansing agents – soaps and detergents, cleansing action.
Practicals Total Periods 60
Microchemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments. Wherever possible
such techniques should be used.
31
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
A. Surface Chemistry (Periods 5)
(a) Preparation of one lyophilic and one lyophobic sol.
Lyophilic sol : starch, egg albumin and gum.
Lyophobic sol : aluminium hydroxide, ferric hydroxide, arsenious sulphide.
(b) Dialysis of sol prepared in (a) above.
(c) Study of the role of emulsifying agent in stabilizing the emulsions of different oils.
B. Chemical Kinetics (Periods 4)
(a) Effect of concentration and temperature on the rate of reaction between sodium
thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
(b) Study of reaction rates of any one of the following:
(i) Reaction of iodide ion with hydrogen peroxide at room temperature using different
concentration of iodide ions.
(ii) Reaction between potassium iodate (KIO3) and sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) using
starch solution as indicator (clock reaction).
C. Thermochemistry (Periods 4)
Any one of the following experiments:
(a) Enthalpy of dissolution of copper sulphate or potassium nitrate.
(b) Enthalpy of neutralization of strong acid (HCl) and strong base (NaOH).
(c) Determination of enthalpy change during interaction (Hydrogen bond formation) between
acetone and chloroform.
D. Electrochemistry (Periods 2)
Variation of cell potential in Zn/Zn2+//Cu2+/Cu with change in concentration of electrolytes
(CuSO4 or ZnSO4) at room temperature.
E. Chromatography (Periods 2)
(a) Separation of pigments from extracts of leaves and flowers by paper chromatography
and determination of Rf values.
(b) Separation of constituents present in an inorganic mixture containing two cations only
(constituents having wide difference in Rf values to be provided).
F. Preparation of Inorganic Compounds (Periods 4)
(a) Preparation of double salt of ferrous ammonium sulphate or potash alum.
(b) Preparation of potassium ferric oxalate.
G. Preparation of Organic Compounds (Periods 2)
Preparation of any one of the following compounds:
(a) Acetanilide
(b) Di-benzal acetone
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
32
(c) p-Nitroacetanilide.
(d) Aniline yellow or 2-Napththol aniline dye.
H. Test for the Functional Groups Present in Organic Compounds (Periods 5)
Unsaturation, alcoholic, phenolic, aldehydic, ketonic, carboxylic and amino (primary) groups.
I. Study of Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins in Pure Form and Detection of their
Presence in given Food Stuffs (Periods 4)
J. Determination of Concentration/Molarity of KMnO4 Solution by Titrating it
against a Standard Solution of (Periods 8)
(a) Oxalic acid
(b) Ferrous ammonium sulphate
(Students will be required to prepare standard solutions by weighing themselves).
K. Qualitative Analysis (Periods 10)
Determination of one anion and one cation in a given salt.
Cations – Pb2+, Cu2+, As3+, Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Co2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+,
Mg2+, NH+
4
Anions – CO2– 3, S2–, SO2– 3, SO2– 4, NO– 2, NO– 3, Cl–, Br–, I–, PO3– 4, C2 O2– 4 CH3COO–
(Note : Insoluble salts excluded)
Project (Periods 10)
Scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other sources.
A few suggested projects
• Study of presence of oxalate ions in guava fruit at different stages of ripening.
• Study of quantity of casein present in different samples of milk.
• Preparation of soybean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect to curd
formation, effect of temperature, etc.
• Study of the effect of potassium bisulphate as food preservative under various conditions
(temperature, concentration, time etc.)
• Study of digestion of starch by salivary amylase and effect of pH and temperature on it.
• Comparative study of the rate of fermentation of following materials: wheat flour, gram
flour, potato juice, carrot juice etc.
• Extraction of essential oils present in Saunf (aniseed), Ajwain (carum), Illaichi (cardamom).
• Study of common food adulterants in fat, oil, butter, sugar, turmeric powder, chilli powder
and pepper.
Note: Any other investigatory project, which involves about 10 periods of work, can be chosen
with the approval of the teacher.

NCERT SYLLABUS FOR BIOLOGY OF CLASS XI

I. Diversity in Living World
Diversity of living organisms.
Classification of the living organisms (five kingdom classification, major groups and principles
of classification within each kingdom).
Systematics and binomial system of nomenclature.
Salient features of animal (non chordates up to phylum level, and chordates up to class level) and
plant (major groups; Angiosperms up to subclass) classification.
Botanical gardens, herbaria, zoological parks and museums. (Periods 25)
Key points for developing subject matter
• The meaning of being ‘alive’.
• Living organisms show a very large diversity in form and structure ranging from unicellular to
very large multicellularwell-differentiated bodies.
• For ease of study, they have been organized into categories and this is called classification.
• Principally, all living organisms can be placed in one or the other of five kingdoms.
• Each kingdom is further subdivided; there are several levels of organisation, the lowest in the
hierarchy being the species.
• The Binomial system, literally ‘two names’, of classification is followed, where each organism
has a Latin generic name with a specific epithet.
• Zoological parks, Botanical gardens, Herbaria and Natural museums serve as Taxonomical aids.
Practicals
Study the large variation of living organisms in the neighbourhood, note their behaviour,
characteristics, and categorize them into groups based on some common features. Study
preserved specimens, at least one representative of each group, to understand correlations
between the characteristics of organisms and their systematic position. Learn how to collect,
press, dry and prepare plant specimens with labels (common and weedy species) for the
herbarium/museum.
47
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
II. Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants
Tissues in animals and plants.
Morphology, anatomy and functions of different parts of flowering plants: Root, stem, leaf,
inflorescence, flower, fruit and seed.
Morphology, anatomy and functions of different systems of an annelid (earthworm), an insect
(cockroach) and an amphibian (frog). (Periods 30)
Key points for developing subject matter
• Light and electron microscopes are used as tools for the study of tissues, cells and cell
organelles.
• Higher organisation of animals and plants is achieved through assembly of thousands/millions
of cells into specialised tissues that in turn form organs and organ systems.
• The organisation of the living body shows division of labour.
• Organisms show increasing complexity in structure and function as we move from the lower
to the higher levels.
• Plants and animals exhibit a wide range of organisation from a simple level to the complex.
• Floral characteristics form the basis of classification and identification of Angiosperms. This
can be illustrated through semi-technical descriptions of families using suitable examples of
wild and cultivated plants.
• The structure of the animal body shows a wide range in morphology and anatomy.
Practicals
Study different types of tissues in plants and animals (temporary preparations and permanent
slides). Prepare and study transverse section of roots and stems to identify different tissues. Study
of locally available plants and animals for their external morphology. Description of three common
flowering plants in semi-technical terms (Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae) and try to group
them based on flower characteristics. Study the anatomy of roots, stems (through hand sections)
and leaves (through permanent slides). Study of one vertebrate and one invertebrate for their
morphology and internal organisation (through charts and models).
III. Cell: Structure and Function
Cell : Cell wall, cell membrane and cell organelles (plastids, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies/ dictyosomes, ribosomes, lysosomes,
vacuoles, centrioles) and nuclear organisation.
Mitosis, meiosis, cell cycle.
Basic chemical constituents of living bodies.
Structure and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
and nucleic acids.
Enzymes : Types, properties and function. (Periods 40)
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
48
Key points for developing subject matter
• The cell organelles are designed to perform tasks such as synthesis, breakdown, respiration
and transport.
• Essential processes of cell division – mitosis and meiosis are similar in animals and plants.
• Living bodies contain different categories of micro and macro-molecules.
• Macromolecules are of four broad categories.
• Proteins, the major macro group besides providing structural support, mediate many
physiological functions like catalysis, defence, transport, and sensing.
• Enzymes are an important class of proteins responsible for all metabolic activities of the cell.
• Carbohydrates are major energy reserves, and also serve the function of providing structural
support to majority of living organisms.
• Lipids serve as major components of membranes, as energy reserves and some hormones.
• The DNA has a double helical structure.
• Nucleic acids are the genetic material, and are responsible for determining the protein synthesis.
Practicals
Observe suitable animal and plant cells (sections and smears) to highlight similarities and differences.
Study of mitosis in onion root tip and animal cells (permanent slides). Test for carbohydrates
(glucose and starch), proteins and fats, and their detection in suitable plant and animal materials.
Study the activity of the enzyme amylase/ trypsin/ papain (using milk powder as substrate).
IV. Plant Physiology
Movement of water, food, nutrients and gases.
Plants and water.
Mineral nutrition.
Respiration.
Photosynthesis.
Plant growth and development. (Periods 40)
Key points for developing subject matter
• Cell to cell movement of water, food, gas and nutrients is dependent principally on concentration
gradients and diffusion.
• Substances are moved against a concentration gradient through active transport.
• The plants lose water through their stomata.
• Transport of water over larger distances in plants depends on transpiration pull.
• Root pressure is responsible for movement of water up short distances and for guttation.
• Plants require a variety of mineral nutrients for their growth and development.
• Some plants are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
• Green plants use the C3 pathway to fix carbon dioxide and synthesize simple sugars in the
presence of sunlight.
49
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
• Some plants have the C4 pathway.
• Sugars are oxidised by all living organisms to release energy.
• Some organisms derive energy from food anaerobically.
• This energy is trapped as ATP and utilised for all metabolic activities.
• Growth regulators regulate growth and development in plants.
Practicals
Demonstrate requirement of chlorophyll and light for photosynthesis. Separate plant pigments using
paper chromatography. Study rate of respiration in different plant materials. Demonstrate anaerobic
respiration. Study transpiration in plants using Cobalt Chloride method. Study imbibition of water by
seeds or raisins. Study plasmolysis and osmosis. Study the effect of apical bud removal on plants.
V. Human Physiology
Digestion and absorption.
Breathing and respiration.
Body fluids and circulation.
Excretory products and elimination.
Locomotion and movement.
Control and coordination. (Periods 45)
Key points for developing subject matter
• Food is broken down enzymatically in stages and nutrients absorbed as they pass through the
alimentary canal.
• The process of exchange of gases takes place at organ, tissue, cell and organelle levels leading
to oxidation of sugars in the cells.
• Gases, nutrients as well as waste products are transported in the body through the vascular system.
• The various components of the blood are involved in diverse functions.
• Metabolic wastes produced in the body are eliminated by excretory system.
• The kidneys play an important role in osmoregulation.
• Movement and locomotion involves interaction of the skeletal and muscular system; the skeleton
also protects many parts of the body.
• Control and coordination require functional integration of neural and endocrine systems in
the body.
• Sense organs are specialised to receive different stimuli and transmit them to the brain.
Practicals
Study diversity of food habits in different parts of the country and discuss the sources of
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and other nutrients. Test different food items for macro-nutrients.
Effect of temperature and pH on activity of salivary amylase. Study of permanent slides of
human blood cells. Testing urine for urea and sugar. Study of the human skeleton, types of joints.
LIST OF PRACTICALS CLASS XI
1. Study parts of a compound microscope.
2. Study of the specimens and identification with reasons – Bacteria, Oscillatoria, Spirogyra,
Rhizopus, mushroom. Yeast, liverwort, moss, fern, Pinus, one monocotyledon and one
dicotyledon and one lichen.
55
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
XII
3. Study of specimens and identification with reasons – Amoeba, Hydra, Liverfluke, Ascaris,
leech, earthworm, prawn, silk worm, honeybee, snail, star fish, shark, rohu, frog, lizard,
pigeon and rabbit.
4. Study of tissues, and diversity in shapes and sizes of plant and animal cells (e.g. palisade cells,
guard cells, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem, phloem, squamous epithelium,
muscle fibres and mammalian blood smear) through temporary/permanent slides.
5. Study of mitosis in onion root tip cells and animal cells (grasshopper)(permanent slides).
6. Study of different modifications in root, stem and leaves.
7. Study and identify different types of inflorescences.
8. Study and describe three common flowering plants (Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae).
9. Preparation and study of t.s dicot and monocot roots and stems (normal).
10. Study external morphology of earthworm, cockroach and frog through models.
11. Study of osmosis by potato osmometer.
12. Study of plasmolysis in epidermal peels (e.g. Rhoeo leaves).
13. Study of imbibition in seeds/raisins.
14. Study of distribution of stomata in the upper and lower surface of leaves.
15. Comparative study of the rates of transpiration in the upper and lower surface of leaves.
16. Test for the presence of sugar, starch, proteins and fats. Detect them in suitable plant and
animal materials.
17. Separate plant pigments through paper chromatography.
18. Study rate of respiration in flower buds/leaf tissue and germinating seeds.
19. Observation and comments on the experimental set up on:
(a) Anaerobic respiration.
(b) Phototropism.
(c) Apical bud removal.
(d) Suction due to transpiration.
20. Study effect of different temperature salivary gland amylase on starch.
21. To test the presence of urea in urine.
22. To detect the presence of sugar in urine/blood sample.
23. To detect the presence of albumin in urine.
24. To detect the presence of bile salts in urine.
25. To study human skeleton and different types of joints.

NCERT SYLLABUS FOR BIOLOGY CLASS XII

VI. Sexual Reproduction
Pollination and fertilisation in flowering plants.
Development of seeds and fruits.
Human reproduction: Reproductive system in male and female, menstrual cycle.
Production of gametes, fertilisation, implantation, embryo development, pregnancy and parturation.
Reproductive health – birth control, contraception and sexually transmitted diseases.
(Periods 35)
Key points for developing subject matter
• Plants show vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction.
• In Angiosperms, the flowers contain the reproductive organs. They may be unisexual or bisexual.
• There are multitudes of ways of bringing together pollen and the carpel (pollination).
• In nature, pollination is subject to many uncertainties; often barriers to pollination and
incompatibility have to be overcome for successful pollination and fertilisation.
• The male gametes are produced in the pollen tube, while the female gamete is produced in the
embryo sac.
• Double fertilisation leads to the formation of embryo and the endosperm.
• The ovules in the ovary turn into seed after fertilisation. The ovary turns into a fruit.
• In animals, testes produce sperms and ovaries produce ova.
• Both male and female gametes production is under hormonal regulation; production of ova
is a cyclic process.
• During fertilization, sperms migrate through the genital tract to fuse with the ova.
• The genetic makeup of the sperm determines the sex of the unborn child.
• The fertilised egg implants in the uterine wall where it remains connected with the mother
till birth.
• The zygote undergoes cleavage, and then passes through different stages of development
leading to the formation of three germinal layers.
• After completion of the gestation period, a fully developed baby is delivered.
• Contraceptive methods interfere with one or more of the following: gamete production,
ovulation, sperm delivery, fusion of gametes and implantation. These methods of birth control
thus help in family planning.
• In IVF the ova is fertilised using a donor sperm outside the body and the
fertilised ova is implanted in the female body for further development.
• Abortion is legal, but not recommended for birth control;
prenatal sex determination (usually associated with
selective female foeticide) is illegal.
• Safe sex can help to prevent sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS.
51
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
Practicals
Study of flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects). Study of the
reproductive parts of unisexual and bisexual flowers. Study of pollen germination on a slide and
pollen tube growth on the stigma. Study of tissue sections of mammalian testis and ovary to
identify stages of gamete development. Study fruits and seeds of any common fruit (e.g. legume)
at different stages of development.
VII. Genetics and Evolution
Mendelian inheritance.
Chromosome theory of inheritance, deviations from Mendelian ratio (gene interaction- Incomplete
dominance, co-dominance, complementary genes, multiple alleles).
Sex determination in human beings: XX, XY.
Linkage and crossing over.
Inheritance pattern of haemophilia and blood groups in human beings.
DNA: replication, transcription, translation.
Gene expression and regulation.
Genome and Human Genome Project.
DNA fingerprinting.
Evolution: Theories and evidences. (Periods 45)
Key points for developing subject matter
• Plants and animals show Mendelian inheritance.
• Organisms may also show cytoplasmic inheritance.
• DNA carries information from one generation to the next.
• Human inheritance pattern can be exemplified by pattern of inheritance of blood groups and
haemophilia.
• Genes on the same chromosomes show linkage and are inherited together unless crossing
over occurs.
• The Lac operon exemplifies a typical model of gene regulation.
• Sequencing of Human DNA under the Human Genome Project aims at finding solutions for
genetic disorders and several health problems.
• DNA fingerprinting is also used for identification and crime detection.
• Diversity in animals and plants arises out of variations in the genetic material.
• Mutation is an important source of variation.
• Further, variations in genetic material would affect the entire population over generations to
give rise to new species and, therefore, lead to evolution.
• The process of evolution is explained by various theories (Lamarckism, Darwinism and Neo-
Darwinism). Different types of evidences support the theories.
Practicals
Study mitosis in onion root tips and animal cells (grasshopper) and meiosis in onion buds and
grasshopper testis (permanent slides). Stain tissue section for nucleic acids (aceto carmine stain).
Study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colours/sizes of any plant. Prepare pedigree
charts for genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood groups, widow’s peak, colour blindness.
Study analogous and homologous organs in various plants and animals.
VIII. Biology and Human Welfare
Animal husbandry.
Basic concepts of immunology, vaccines.
Pathogens, Parasites.
Plant breeding, tissue culture, food production.
Microbes in household food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment and energy generation.
Cancer and AIDS.
Adolescence and drug/alcohol abuse. (Periods 35)
Key points for developing subject matter
• Traditionally farm animals have been bred for increased productivity, disease and pest resistance.
• The human body has its own defence mechanism.
• The defence system is constantly under attack from diverse sources – pollutants, chemicals and
infectious organisms.
• Our body is capable of producing millions of types of antibodies to trap/remove and
overcome the adverse effects of these foreign bodies/chemicals.
• However, against some infectious organisms we need to develop antibodies in advance, i.e.
acquired immunity.
• Vaccination can help in developing immunity to specific diseases.
• Genetically engineered micro organisms are serving as bioreactors for production of vaccines
and drugs.
• Infectious organisms like helminths (Ascariasis, Filaria), protozoa (Amoebiasis, Malaria), bacteria
(Typhoid, Pneumonia), viruses (common cold, AIDS) and fungi (Ring worm) attacks specific
systems of our body and produce characteristic symptoms.
• Each infectious organism, therefore, requires individual preventive measures.
• Some of these preventive measures demand improved personal hygiene and living conditions.
• Traditional plant breeding has been the method of creating varieties that are high on yield,
resistance to pests and diseases and adapted to a given climatic condition. This has been the
source of green revolution in India.
• New methods of propagation using tissue culture and genetic alteration using rDNA technology
provide novel methods of crop improvement, horticulture, pest resistance.
• Microbes thrive by degradation/conversion of organic and inorganic compounds.
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
52
• These characteristics of microbes can be exploited to produce household products (yoghurt/
vinegar), for industrial production, treatment of sewage and energy generation.
• Diseases like cancer and AIDS – the major cause of death in the modern world – need
adequate preventive/control measures.
• Some people who are unable to handle the emotional stress and strain of growing up find
apparent relief in actions like drug and alcohol consumption; in reality a non-solution since it
leads to severe repercussions like physiological and emotional disorders.
Practicals
Exercise on controlled pollination – emasculation, tagging and bagging. Identify common disease
causing organisms such as Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, ring worm. Comment on the symptoms
of the diseases that they cause.
IX. Biotechnology and its Applications
Recombinant DNA technology.
Applications in Health, Agriculture and Industry.
Genetically modified (GM) organisms; biosafety issues.
Insulin and Bt cotton. (Periods 30)
Key points for developing subject matter
• DNA is a long polymer that can be edited by cutting and joining in any desired way. The
edited DNA molecule (recombinant DNA) can be reintroduced into microbes, animals or
plants to create genetically modified (GM) organisms or transgenics.
• rDNA technology is the very basis of many applications in biotechnology – for example to
produce desired drugs and for gene therapy.
• rDNA technology has also played a major role in production of GM foods which have the
advantage of high yields, pest and disease resistance.
• Use of GM food and crops has raised several questions regarding its bio-safety from the
point of human consumption, environment and other social issues.
• A combination of classical breeding with rDNA technology and genetic modification has
great potential for animal breeding.
• While cloning has been in use for plants since several decades, use of the technique in animals,
particularly human cloning, raises several ethical and other issues.
• rDNA technology (gene therapy) can provide effective remedies for several genetic disorders.
• Bioreactors have been developed for production of vaccines and drugs.
Practicals
Stain tissue section for nucleic acids (aceto-carmine staining). Make a model of DNA. Observe
the quality and shelf life etc of fruits/seeds available in the market.
53
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
54
XI
X. Ecology and Environment
Ecosystems: Components, types and energy flow.
Species, population and community.
Ecological adaptations.
Centres of diversity and conservation of biodiversity, National parks and sanctuaries.
Environmental issues. (Periods 35)
Key points for developing subject matter
• The living organisms in their environment form a structural and functional unit in terms of
energy flow (ecological pyramids).
• The biotic and abiotic components within an ecosystem interact with each other.
• Several types of ecosystems can be classified and identified in nature depending on the climate,
habitat, energy flow pattern and the physiognomy.
• In nature, organisms do not occur singly but exist as populations and communities.
• Plants and animals are adapted to their habitats such as in deserts and in water.
• Several factors affect biodiversity including natural and anthropogenic activities.
• In India, women have played a major role in conservation of plants, animals and natural resources.
• The need of the present day is to conserve biodiversity for a sustainable living; several
conservation methods have been adopted.
• Conservation of biodiversity may be in situ or ex situ.
• The ‘Silent Valley’ as a case study, to understand the value of environmental impact assessment
and the role of peoples’ participation.
• Introduction to the idea that new products, processes and ideas related to biodiversity can be
patented (Intellectual Property Rights, IPR).
• Pollution, deforestation, global warming, ozone layer depletion, underground water level and threat
to biodiversity (with special reference to wild life) are some among many environmental concerns.
Practicals
Collect soils from different sites and study them for texture, moisture content and pH. Correlate
with the kinds of plants found in them. Study plants and animals found in dry and aquatic
conditions. Collect water from any water bodies around you and study them for pH, clarity, and
presence of any living organisms. Study the amount of SPM (suspended particulate matter) in air
at two widely separated sites.
LIST OF PRACTICALS CLASS XII
1. Study of the reproductive parts of different flowers.
2. Study of flowers adapted to pollination by different
agencies (wind, insect).
3. Study of per cent pollen germination on a slide.
Syllabus
for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
Levels
56
REPORT
4. Study pollen tube growth on the stigma.
5. Study fruits and seeds of any common fruit (e.g. legume) at different stages of development.
6. Study and identify stages of gamete development in t.s.testis and t.s. ovary.
7. Study mitosis in onion root tips (preparation).
8. Study meiosis in onion bud cells and grasshopper testis (permanent slides).
9. Study of t.s. of blastula through permanent slide.
10. Study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colours/size of any plant.
11. Prepare pedigree charts for genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood groups, widows’s
peak, colourblindness.
12. Exercise on controlled pollination – emasculation, tagging and bagging.
13. Stain tissue section for nucleic acids (aceto carmine stain).
14. To identify common disease causing organism like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, ring worm.
Comment on the symptoms of the diseases that they cause.
15. Collect and study soil from different sites and study them for texture and moisture content.
16. Study the pH and water holding capacity of soil. Correlate with the kinds of plants found
in them.
17. Study plants and animals found in dry conditions. Comment upon on their adaptations/
ecosystems.
18. Study plants and animals of aquatic conditions. Comment upon on their adaptations/
ecosystems.
19. Collect water from different water bodies around you and study them for pH, clarity and
presence of any living organisms.
20. Study the amount of suspended particulate matter in air at the two widely different sites.
21. Study of plant population density by quadrat method.
22. Study of plant population frequency by quadrat method.
23. Study analogous and homologous organs in various plants and animals.
PROJECT REPORT
Students are also expected to carry out one investigatory project that would engage them for
about a week in actual experimentation. They would be expected to submit a project report of
the same that would include a presentation of the results obtained in their investigation